INTRODUCTION

In the attempt to pick the perfect species for our management plan, we decided to learn about species with which we were unfamiliar and habitat in which we were interested. Kinnickinnic State Park was the perfect choice for our management plan. After examining species accounts for the park and referring to Managing for Grassland Birds: A Guide for Wisconsin, we decided to focus our efforts on grassland bird species of special concern in Wisconsin. Upland Sandpiper (Sturnella neglecta)  and Western Meadowlark (Bartramia longicauda)   are among the grassland birds whose populations are declining. Upland Sandpiper and Western Meadowlark are grassland birds which prefer short-grass prairie habitat. Establishing proper habitat in our management area will provide opportunities to educate people about the importance of wildlife and habitat conservation. Our goals for this plan include:  establishing habitat for these two bird species, restoring the management area from a dry old field to a healthy short grass stand, promoting species diversity, and renewing life to a neglected state park. This park is a resource untapped and underused by the community in an area threatened by encroaching development. If our plan were to be implemented, Kinnickinnic State Park would be able to promote wildlife and conservation to the fullest extent of its capabilities.

LITERATURE REVIEW OF SPECIES LIFE HISTORY

Upland Sandpiper (Bartramia longicauda)

History/Status

Historically the Upland Sandpiper, or the Upland Plover as it was once known, was abundant in summer grasslands until the late 1800s. When the passenger pigeon became extinct, the market value of Upland Sandpipers increased dramatically (New Jersey Division of Fish and Wildlife). Because of market hunting, Upland Sandpipers declined until they became protected under the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1916. Since then the Upland Sandpiper has slowly recovered and is increasing in numbers in northern Oklahoma and North Dakota (USGS). However, in Minnesota and Wisconsin, the populations have been in steady decline since the 1970s. The Upland Sandpiper is federally listed as a “migratory non game species of management concern”. This means there is a potential problem with abundance or distribution. The idea of this designation is to focus attention on the species before it becomes endangered or extinct (Sample and Mossman, 1997).

Appearance and Identification

The Upland Sandpiper is a shorebird that is rarely seen near water. Its long yellow legs are featherless above the heel (Michigan DNR). Its tail, the longest of any sandpiper, extends beyond its wings when folded (USGS). The Sandpiper has a long, thin neck that leads to a small, pigeon shaped head with a dark crown. Its short bill is curved slightly downward at the tip. Its call is described as a kip-ip-ip-ip and is audible for a long distance.

Specifics: • Length: 10 inches • Long-legged, small-headed, long-necked shorebird of grasslands • Legs yellow • Thin, short bill • Very large dark eye stands out against pale face • Black rump and long tail, with dark bars • Dark outer wing contrasts with brownish inner wing in flight • Often perches on fence posts or stumps • Sexes similar • Dark cap • Pale head and neck streaked with brown • Whitish eye ring and throat • Brown back and wing coverts with pale edges and black bars • Buff neck and breast and white belly with dark chevrons on neck, breast and flanks. • Juvenile has very pale head without the contrast between the cap and face of the adult

Habitat

Although the Upland Sandpiper is considered a shorebird, it is generally not found in coastal areas. The Upland Sandpiper prefers habitats such as grasslands in both its breeding and winter ranges. Sandpipers use short grasses for feeding and courtship, but may use some taller grasses to conceal a nest (Cornell Lab of Ornithology). Typically the preferred vegetation is 8-40 cm tall and includes species such as Timothy (Phleum spp.), Bluegrass (Poa spp.), Needlegrass (Stipa spp.), Bluestem (Andropogon spp.), Quack grass(Argopyron spp.), June grass(Koeleria), and Brome grass(Bromus spp).  Sandpipers are sensitive to vegetation height, so they may not use areas with grass taller than 70 cm. Often as large as 87 hectares, home ranges require adjoining tracts of grasslands and large, un fragmented fields. The typical territory size is 8-12 hectares (USGS). Habitat can include pastures with light levels of grazing or hayfields (as long as the hay is not cut during the breeding season), native grasslands, wet meadows, planted cropland, and grassy areas of airports. Ideally, the terrain will be level and have low/moderate forb cover, no shrubs, moderate/high litter cover,and little bare ground (Sample and Mossman). The Upland Sandpiper is considered edge-sensitive, so minimal edge is desired. Sandpipers like to perch on old stumps, fencepost's, or rock piles.

Feeding

An Upland Sandpiper's diet consists of 97% insects and 3% seeds (IL Natural Resources Information Network). They eat a variety of insects including the larvae and adults of grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, butterflies, moths, flies, ants, and bees. They may also eat the seeds of plants including wheat and foxtail grass. When feeding, Sandpipers run for short stretches with a high-stepping gait, while bobbing their heads back and forth. Sandpipers locate their food by sight, not probing, so when a insect is spotted they stop abruptly to snatch it up.

Range

The breeding range of the Upland Sandpiper is from northeastern British Columbia to southwest Ontario and south to Oregon, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Oklahoma. The population is distributed east to Virginia and along the east coast to New Brunswick. In the Northeast there are some populations, but they live primarily in airport fields.

Breeding

The breeding season begins when the Sandpipers arrive in mid-April in Wisconsin (USGS). The Sandpipers may already be paired up and begin to demonstrate territorially and courtship behavior 2-3 weeks after arrival in their breeding grounds. Upland Sandpipers are classified as “loosely” colonial breeders (Illinois Natural Resources Information Network). They have their nests next to communal resting and feeding areas. During courtship, males will sing while flying high over the breeding area in wide circles. Both males and females make nest scrapes, but the male is more persistent in this behavior. A nest scrape is a shallow depression in the ground that the Sandpiper scrapes out and lines with pieces of grass. Prior to copulation, the male will chase the female with his tail raised, running towards her. The female Sandpiper will lay a clutch of four eggs, which will be incubated for 21-27 days before hatching sometime in mid-June. The pair will raise one clutch per year, but they may re nest if their first nest is destroyed. Some studies say that the chicks are tended by both adults, while others say the male is responsible for brooding the chicks. The chicks leave the nest after the last one hatches and fledge after 30-31 days. When the chicks can fly and are independent, flocks will form and the birds will leave their breeding grounds in August or September.

Migration

The Upland Sandpiper is a neotropical migrant.  In August or September, the Upland Sandpiper will migrate from North America to southeastern South America. In South America they occupy habitat similar to their North American Habitat.

Welfare Factors Welfare factors for the Sandpiper include large tracts of short grassland, with adequate cover for nesting.
Decimating Factors Decimating factors are factors that pull down the population by direct killing. For Upland Sandpipers, this may include nest predation by crows, skunks, mink or fox, or may be trampled by cows. Plowing fields also contributes to Sandpiper mortality.
Limiting Factors Limiting factors outweigh all other factors in destroying the population. Habitat loss and fragmentation is the main limiting factor for Upland Sandpipers. Farmlands and grasslands that were formerly good habitat have been developed into suburban areas. Also, the increased use of pesticides has affected the insects that make up the Sandpipers’ food source.

Trends/Status

Map of % Change per year

Western Meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta)

History/Status

The Western Meadowlark is one of the North America’s most common and widely distributed birds (Friends of Edgewood Natural Preserve). There are two specific meadowlarks, Eastern and Western, and are both members of the blackbird family, and interestingly not members of the lark family. The two species are so similar that it was until 1844 when the Audubon noticed a difference (eNature.com). The Western Meadowlark is famed for its frequent roadside occurrences, colorful plumage, fearless behavior, and distinct cheerful song, and is also the state bird of six U.S. states (Great Plains Nature Center). While considered to be in abundance currently, it is known to be declining throughout its range (Cornell Lab of Ornithology) and is a species of special concern in Wisconsin (Sample).

Appearance and Identification

This medium sized grassland bird has a long narrow bill, a short tail, and long legs and toes. Mature birds have a dark crown with a light median stripe. The light line over the eyes become brighter yellow as it spreads from the eye to the bill. The upper parts are an arrangement of buffs, browns, and black streaks. Between the upper are under parts are dull white under-tail feathers. The under parts, the meadowlarks’most characteristic feature, is bright yellow with a black shield-shaped patch on it. (eNature.com). Juveniles differ quite little from the adults. Their head stripe is less sharp, they are paler overall, and have dusky spots or flecks on chest instead of the black shield shaped patch. Males and females are similar in coloration and pattern with the female being smaller and less heavily marked. The Western Meadowlark is very similar in appearance to the Eastern Meadowlark and can more accurately be differentiated by their songs (eNature.com).

Specifics: •Size: 16-26 cm •Wing Span: 41 cm •Weight: 89-115 g •Large Robin-Sized songbird with a short tail •Throat, chest, and belly yellow •Black “V”across chest •Outer tail feathers white •Bill long and slender •Long legs and toes •Crown dark with light stripe down middle •Light eyebrow, yellow in front of eye •Flanks white with dark streaking •Eyes black •Legs pink •Outer wing and tail feathers partly barred with black and brown •Buffy edging to feathers in fall wears off during winter, revealing bright pattern.

Habitat

The Western Meadowlark is a grassland bird that prefers open country. This open country includes native grasslands, mixed grasslands/shrub lands, pastures, croplands, weedy fallow fields, roadsides, savannas, plains and desert grasslands (BBS, Cornell). In particular the Western Meadowlark prefers short grass habitats in lieu of medium or tall grass habitats (Sample).

Feeding and Behavior

Western Meadowlarks are primarily ground feeders, acquiring food from the top of the ground or by probing beneath the soil (Friends of Edgewood Natural Preserve). The majority of their diet consists of vegetable (grain and weed seeds) and animal matter (insects). Its favorite insects are beetles, cutworms, grasshoppers, and crickets. In the winter and early spring, they primarily feed on grains. In the growing season of late spring and summer when insects are more abundant, they become the main source of food. And in the fall again when insects become scarce, meadowlarks will resort to weed seeds as their primary food source (Friends of Edgewood Natural Preserve). In the winter it is common to see meadowlarks for flocks of up to a couple hundred individuals feeding in fields and pastures. These are foraging birds that walk or run on the ground, occasionally probing with its long bill, but when they near their nests they tend to walk more slowly with their bodies closer to the ground.

Range

Summer:
Breeds from British Columbia to Southern Ontario and extreme northwestern Ohio, southward to Mexico and western Texas. The range has spread eastward in recent years.
Winter:
Winters from Washington, northern Utah, Nebraska, and northern Illinois, southward to the Gulf Coast and southern Mexico (Cornell Lab of Ornithology).

Breeding and Young

The breeding cycle for Western Meadowlarks occur from mid-February to mid-July. The males typically arrive on the grounds 2-4 weeks prior to the females. The female will only pair with one male while the mall usually has two mates simultaneously. The pair remains together until the female has completed the parental care or aborted a final nesting attempt. When the females first arrive, they quickly pair with a male and often partake in an aerial chase, initiated by the female. These chases may be short single flights or a series of quick flights alternated with intervals of rest and posturing displays on the ground (Cornell). The male meadowlark will point his bill upward, puff out his yellow throat, and jerk his fanned tail up and down. He will also flap his wings above his head. The male may then jump straight up in the air to get the females attention (Stanford). The female, in response, will elevate her bill and tail, drop her wings slightly and quiver (USGS).
Females typically have two broods per year. They nest in natural and scraped grassland depressions. Their nests are bowl shaped and are made with course grass and lined with finer grass and animal hair. The nest is often covered with a roof or arch, and have a form of entrance tunnel or runway. The nest is typically within a larger grass clump to provide shelter and camouflage. Females alone gather materials and build the nests. It usually takes about 6-8 days to complete. Eggs are laid after the nest is lined and at a rate of one egg in early morning on consecutive days for approximately five days. She will rarely visit the nest during this period except for laying. If the nest is disturbed, she will be quick to abandon it. Clutch size can range from 3-7 eggs. The eggs are white with dark brown and purple spots concentrated at the wider end. The male meadowlark will generally show no interest in the next with eggs. The incubation is left to the female and begins with the laying of the last egg and usually lasts roughly 13-14 days. The young hatch usually hatch all on the same day nearly naked with no parental assistance. The eyes remain closed for 4 days and feathers begin to appear on the 6th day. The female is in charge of caring for the young. Insects are the main food source for the young and are fed directly from the mother’s bill to the young’s throat without regurgitation. After only about 10-12 days in the nest, the young are ready to fledge. Their bodies are now fully covered by feathers, although their flight feathers are not completely developed. At this stage they are unable to sustain flight. Their legs are strong, however, allowing them to run quickly if threatened. At 15-16 days they are able to handle short flights and sustained flights are 20-21 days. The young remain dependent on the parents for up to two weeks after fledging and will develop their black “V” by their fall molt.

Migration

The Western Meadowlark is a short distance migrator. Mexico is the Meadowlark's southern most point of migration. This bird will often only migrate to south parts of the United States.

Welfare Factors Welfare Factors for the Western Meadowlark include: •Adequate food and habitat •Adequate ground cover
Decimating Factors Decimating factors for the Western Meadowlark include: •Cowbird Parasitism •Predators •House cats
Limiting Factors Limiting factors for the Western Meadowlark include: •Habitat Fragmentation •Loss of Suitable Habitat

Interesting Facts

•The Western Meadowlarks’loud cheerful song makes it one of the best known western birds. The song is often heard on movie sound tracks even when the setting is far out of the bird’s range.
•The male Western Meadowlark usually has two mates at one time.
•It is the state bird of Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Oregon, and Wyoming (Great Plains Nature Center).

Trends/Status

Map of % Change per year

Map of relative abundance

LITERATURE REVIEW OF MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Overview

“Management efforts directed toward the protection of large, contiguous grassland areas on the breeding grounds (and possibly on the wintering grounds as well) offer the most promising avenue for avoiding further population declines of these species (Heckert, 1994). Upland Sandpipers need large areas of grassland mosaic, land that has an assortment of mowed areas and tall grasses (Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, USGS). Along with Upland Sandpiper and Western Meadowlark, many other bird species benefit from these management practices. An example is Ring-necked Pheasants, which have personally observed in the park. The Upland Sandpiper and Western Meadowlark prefer similar types of habitat that can be achieved by the following management practices. The goal for both species is a short (<15 cm) height-density of vegetation, medium litter layer, low/medium cover of standing residual vegetation and medium (1:1 to 2.5:1) grass: forb ratio (Sample, 1997, pg. 58). The ideal cover of bare ground is medium, with no woody vegetation. The minimum area requirements are 25 to 250 acres, and potentially as high as more than 250 acres.

Burning Burning is a natural way to restore nutrients to the soil. Since burning is effective in reducing the litter layer, it is a very useful management strategy (Brockway, et. Al., 2002). Areas with a thick litter layer will not be used by birds for nesting because they can’t forage for food or escape from predators very well. Burns should be conducted every 2-6 years, but some sources recommend burning every 8-10 years when used in combination with mowing and grazing (Iowa Prairie Network). Upland Sandpipers were observed using a burned area 2-3 years after it was burned, but they also are found more often on the area after it was burned compared to when it was unburned. Burning may force Sandpipers to nest in cultivated fields if there is not enough unburned area left for nesting (Dechant, 2001). Densities of Western Meadowlarks are low after burning, but will increase a few years after the burn. One way this may be avoided is to burn not more than 50 % of the area each year. For pieces of land less than 80 hectares, only 20-30% of it should be burned every year. The best time to burn is in early spring from March to April or from October to November. Some sources suggest the “best time to burn is when the buds of the sugar maple are just opening” (Bruce Company of WI). Although they may provide habitat for grassland birds, exotic grasses such as Kentucky Bluegrass may out compete native short grass prairie species. Exotic grasses like these can be controlled by conducting controlled burns in May (University of Illinois, Springfield Prairie Restoration Project). Certain procedures for conducting a controlled burn can be considered standard for most burns. A team can consist of six people. Since burning is potentially the most dangerous of the management practices, safety is of the utmost concern. A burn should only take place during ideal conditions. Ideal burning conditions include wind speed of 32 kph or less, temperature between 10 and 27 degrees C, and 20-55% humidity.  Ideal weather is sunny, preceded by a few rain free days (Bergland, personal communication).  A fire break will be created by mowing a strip of land or else burning a strip of land. A back fire will be lit using a drip torch. A few hours later, the head fire will be lit. (University of Illinois, Springfield Prairie Restoration Project). In addition to obtaining a permit from the DNR, the burn team should notify the local fire and police departments, as well as neighboring landowners. Backfires should be used as little as possible because they expose the surface soil to hot temperatures for extended amounts of time. Burning can be followed by mowing to eradicate woody vegetation. The pattern in which a burn is conducted is also very important. The Iowa Prairie Network recommends dividing the prairie fragment into distinct biological communities, and then further dividing into smaller sections. The ideal shape for a burning section is a long linear strip. Only one section should be burned each year, and adjacent sections should not be burned in consecutive years. Burning has some advantages over mowing. Burning consumes plant debris, so it doesn't’t have to be raked away as in after mowing. Burning also warms up the soil, and can destroy weed seeds. Burns intended to suppress cool-season grasses should be done in the spring, and burns done to suppress warm-season grasses should be done in mid- to late-summer (Sample, 1997). Thus, in managing for a short grass prairie, which is primarily cool-season grasses, burning should be done in late summer. Upland Sandpipers respond positively to fields that are recently burned.

Mowing

Mowing is an important management tool to prevent weeds from growing or dispersing seed on the prairie site before the prairie plants can get a chance to get established. It also prevents existing vegetation from shading native seedlings. When mowing, it is important to use a rotary mower because it shreds the grass, unlike a sickle-style mower which may smother prairie seedlings (University of Illinois, Springfield Prairie Restoration Project). Mowing is also beneficial in relation to burning. In a project at Iowa State University the prairie was mowed prior to burning. The result was a layer of dried vegetation that made the fire easier to control.
Mowing should be conducted every 1-3 years to prevent woody vegetation from becoming established; however it is not necessary to mow every year. Upland Sandpipers will feed in recently mowed areas as long as there are adjacent areas suitable for nesting. Western Meadowlark densities were higher in hayfields mowed the previous year compared to grasslands that were lightly to heavily grazed. In some studies, Meadowlarks were found often in hayfields mowed annually, and occasionally in fields mowed periodically (Dechant). The timing of mowing is important. Usually all the chicks should be fledged by mid to late July, but to be safe, it is best to mow after August 1st. Mowing later in the season will not only benefit the grassland birds, but butterflies and wildflowers as well (Dechant, 2001). It is always better to manage areas that are as large as possible. Fields that are contiguous are better than fields isolated from each other. Some additional considerations include raising the mower blades to six inches or higher, avoid mowing at night, and use no-till or medium till practices. Using flushing bars will also prevent birds from being run over (USGS). The Bruce Company of WI suggests that a prairie be mowed to 4-6” during the first season. This will prevent weeds from going to seed. The second year, the prairie should be mowed as short as possible, and all debris should be cleared off. For long term management, the prairie should be mowed in sections, and this recommendation can be extended to burning and grazing as well. Doing management practices on a small scale will prevent one species from becoming dominant and spread out the workload. Mowing should be conducted starting from the inside and working out in such a manner as to allow ways for young birds to escape (Sample, 1997). Both the Upland Sandpiper and Western Meadowlark will remain in fields once they are mowed.

Grazing

According to the USGS grazing during late spring and early summer has a negative effect of the reproduction and nesting density of Upland Sandpipers. Therefore, it is best to delay grazing until nesting is established in mid to late June. Even if it is done at a low density, season-long grazing should be avoided. Leaving native grasslands idle did not have a negative effect on Upland Sandpiper success. Upland Sandpipers usually avoid tall, dense vegetation and prefer grazed fields. The birds will use grazed, burned, or mowed fields for feeding, resting, and brooding, and use undisturbed fields with longer grass for nesting. Western Meadowlarks respond positively when light to moderate grazing is used, however, heavy grazing has a negative effect on the birds. Light grazing is considered to be .4-.5 head of cattle per acre (Sample, 1997). Light grazing is beneficial to grassland birds for several reasons. It creates a “mosaic of grass heights” and removes ground litter (USGS). It also allows wildflowers and shrubs to develop. Rotational grazing can be used to maintain the desired conditions for the grassland. It is recommended that at least 40% of the grassland fragment be at the minimum vegetation height of 8-12 inches, with scattered forbs until August 1. It is very important that cattle be kept from grazing on the grassland during the nesting season, from June 1-July 15. When the birds arrive in May, it is a good idea to keep portions of the pasture ungrazed to allow for cover for the birds to establish nests. At the end of the season, grazing should be discontinued by early to mid-September for short grass prairies (Sample, 1997). Natural forms of grazing on the prairies are Bison, Elk and Prairie Dog colonies (Best Management Practices for Shortgrass Prairie Birds). When these animals roam free they impact the grassland unevenly, creating different conditions for grasses across the prairie. The best management plans for short grass prairies will mimic the timing and intensity of natural disturbances on the prairie. In actuality, the most commonly used management strategy today is livestock grazing. When cattle, sheep, or goats are used for grazing, the habitat becomes uniform in terms of vegetation. Some species, such as the Western Meadowlark and Upland Sandpiper, need habitats that have vegetation of various heights. In order to counteract these negative effects of grazing, monitoring needs to be done to assess the various controls for grazing and how they each affect the vegetation. Possible variations on grazing include: deferred rotation, rest rotation, and high intensity/low frequency. There are a few disadvantages of grazing. First, fencing, trailers, and other special equipment is expensive. Having cattle on the grazing site can be complicating when dealing with the availability of water for the cattle and coordinating the grazing rotations. Also, cattle are not convenient on small prairie sites. On the other hand, there are some advantages to using large mammals for grazing. Grazing causes a variety of disturbances and the result is vegetation that is far more heterogeneous than can be achieved by burning (Iowa Prairie Network). It is important that prior to grazing, cattle are quarantined and fed weed free hay for two days, so that any seeds will pass through their digestive system and not contaminate the prairie.

Edge/Habitat Fragmentation

Grass Plantings
“One way to lower vegetation height and density is to lower seeding rates” (Sample, 1997).
The goal is to have 10% forb cover and 4-6 lbs. of grass seed per acre.

Other Considerations
Western Meadowlark densities declined following pest control of grasshoppers, probably due to the reduction of available insects for food. Herbicides should be avoided at all costs, but if necessary it should be conducted only where needed on a spot-by-spot basis. Spraying should be conducted after the peak breeding season.

BUDGET

Sources:

Spraying rates, Herbicide rates, John Dunn- WI DNR Wildlife Manager, and Don Christen-Farmer

EXPANDED MANAGEMENT PLAN

Since the main part of our management plan was so expensive, the idea of having an unlimited budget is appealing. In our expanded management plan, we plan to restore the prairie on the north side of the river. It has been eight years since this area was last burned by staff at Kinnickinnic State Park (Matt, personal communication). Occasionally, the area is mowed to control thistle and woody invasive vegetation is cut. The area has been seeded with Big Bluestem and other Tall grass Prairie Species in the past. Our goal for this area is to maintain and improve it as a Tall grass Prairie. We will conduct a controlled burn on the site to eliminate woody vegetation. If any woody vegetation is remaining after the burn, we will remove it by digging. We will continue with the mowing schedule established by Kinnickinnic State Park. We will develop a soft edge in this section of the prairie. In addition to the prairie, in appropriate wooded parts of the park we will implement certain silvicultural practices to encourage the forest to be at optimum density and species composition.

	SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Our management plan involves not only management techniques for Upland Sandpipers and Western Meadowlarks, but prairie restoration as well. Both the grassland birds and the visitors to Kinnickinnic State Park will benefit from our management plan. Our management techniques of burning, mowing, and planting will create ideal habitat for our management species. What has been an idle, abandoned field for over a decade will be transformed into a diverse, lively habitat for many species of wildlife. We anticipate that within five years, once the prairie is established, the populations of both the Upland Sandpiper and Western Meadowlark will also become established and increase. Through our eco tourism component, the neighboring landowners, visitors, and even the staff at Kinnickinnic State Park can gain a new appreciation of the area and view it as a part of the community that everyone can be proud of. The restoration of Kinnickinnic State Park will send a message that western Wisconsin cares about wildlife.

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